Women & OHS

Occupational health and safety is important for all workers, but women workers face some particular issues in regard to workplace safety.

A 1999 study in the UK by the TUC (the ACTU equivalent) found that:

• Women are more exposed to repetitive and monotonous work and stressful conditions;
• Young women are more likely to be physically assaulted at work than men;
• Women are more likely than men to experience back strain, skin diseases, headaches and eye strain.

And in spite of the statistics about women's health and safety at work, OH&S is still often seen as men's business.

Under the NSW Occupation Health and Safety Act 2000, which came into operation on 1 September 2001, employers have a duty of care to ensure the safety, health and welfare of their employees and other people in the workplace. The legislation requires employers to take a "risk management" approach to occupational health and safety in the workplace and requires compulsory consultation with employees.

Consultation

The Act sets out a framework for consultation which must be carried out via:

• An occupational health and safety committee;
• OH&S representative/s; or
• Other mutually agreed arrangements between the employer and employees.

It is important for women workers to be involved in consultation about OH&S matters. In many workplaces, OH&S is perceived as only being important for men working with heavy machinery or electricity.

Without input from women, many critical OH&S issues can be overlooked.

Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

Employers are required by law to protect the health, welfare and safety of all workers in their workplace including women who are pregnant, may become pregnant or who are breastfeeding. This must be done in a non-discriminatory way and any change to a pregnant or breastfeeding employee's duties or working arrangements made because of her pregnancy and which are not requested or agreed to could be:
(a) a breach of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000; or
(b) unlawful discrimination resulting in disciplinary or legal proceedings.

Agencies must undertake a risk assessment of all workplaces and work related hazards in accordance with the Premier's Department's Taking Safety Seriously 2002: A systematic approach to managing workplace risks in NSW Public Sector - Policy and Guidelines 2nd Edition .

This requirement extends to the risk assessment which must be carried out whenever the present work of a pregnant or a breastfeeding employee is a risk to the health or safety of the employee or of her unborn or new born child. The assessment of such risk will usually be made on the basis of a medical certificate supplied by the employee.

If, for any reason, a pregnant or breastfeeding employee is having difficulty in performing her normal duties or there is a risk, then the agency must temporarily adjust the employee's working conditions or hours of work in order to minimise exposure to the risk. These include, but are not confined to, greater flexibility in when and where duties are carried out, a temporary change in duties, retraining, multi-skilling, teleworking and job redesign.

If an adjustment is not feasible or cannot reasonably be made, the agency must transfer the employee to such other appropriate work as will not expose the employee to the risk. It must be as close as possible in status and pay to those of her normal work.

If such adjustments cannot reasonably be made, the employee must be granted maternity leave (or any available sick leave) for as long as it is necessary to avoid exposure to that risk, as certified by a medical practitioner, or until the child is born, whichever is the earlier.

In relation to breastfeeding, as well as any risks to the employee or her newborn child, there may also be a risk of contamination of expressed breastmilk at a workplace. Workplaces should aim to provide a clean and private place in which an employee can express milk or breastfeed and an appropriate, secure storage facility for expressed milk.

There are many benefits to women, babies and agencies in permitting and facilitating breastfeeding in the workplace.

There are major health benefits both to women and their babies of breastfeeding and the World Health Organisation now recommends that women breastfeed for at least 6 months.

Employers can also benefit through retaining valuable staff, earlier return from maternity leave, reduced absences (breastfed babies suffer from fewer infections and diseases), improved employee relations and creating a positive image of the agency in the community. Allowing employee to take lactation breaks (that is a break to express milk or breastfeed) is crucial to enable a woman to maintain her milk supply and to enable her to work in comfort throughout the day.

For further information about breastfeeding at work contact the Women's Unit or see the Federal Health Department's publication Balancing Breastfeeding and Work, or contact the Australian Breastfeeding Association

Reproductive Hazards

The sexual activity of both men and women and the conception and development of healthy children depends on the normal functioning of three body systems. These are the nervous system, the hormonal system and the sex organs (i.e. testicles, ovaries). All of these systems can be affected by agents found in the workplace.

What are reproductive hazards?

Reproductive hazards are agents which affect men and women's ability to have children. They can also affect the development of the foetus or baby, when the mother is exposed during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Workplace reproductive hazards can be:

• Chemical agents commonly found in industrial workplaces (for example metals such as lead and cadmium and solvents such as glycol ether, benzene or toluene), in agricultural work (for example pesticides) and in all sorts of laboratory work.

• Physical agents such as radiation (for example ionising radiation such as X-rays used in hospitals and industrial processes such as food irradiation).

• Biological agents found in laboratories and health and child care workplaces, particularly viruses such as rubella, mumps, hepatitis B or cytomegalovirus.

• Work practices which are physically stressful or which are difficult and potentially unsafe for pregnant workers (for example, climbing ladders, standing all day and excessive bending during late pregnancy).

Some reproductive hazards in the workplace

Who can be affected?

Sexual function in either men or women may be affected even if they are not planning to have children. All workers are potentially affected and reproductive hazards should be controlled like any other workplace hazard. That is, hazardous agents should be removed or exposure to them should be controlled so that the workplace is safe for all workers.

What are the effects of reproductive hazards? For women?

In women, reproductive hazards may adversely affect sexual activity or fertility through effects on hormones, the nervous system or the ovary. Just as chemicals can affect orgasm and interest in sex in men, so they can affect women by interfering with nerve and/or hormonal function. Ova (eggs), like sperm, are susceptible to injury, particularly mutation.

Women are born with a fixed number of ova, one of which develops each month under the influence of female hormones and is released by the ovary in mid-cycle. If an agent interferes with these hormones, the cells of the ovary or the developing egg, the menstrual cycle may become irregular (for example bleeding too early, too long, too late or missed periods). If this occurs, infertility is likely because release of the egg may not occur, or even if it does, the womb may not be 'ready' to receive the fertilised egg. If immature ova are damaged, the supply of eggs will be depleted which may cause early menopause.

Women who smoke tend to reach menopause a couple of years before non-smokers, and chemical exposures in the workplace, if high enough, may have similar effects. The possible consequences of exposure to reproductive hazards for women are:

• impaired sexual activity
• infertility
• irregular periods
• an abnormal pregnancy
• early menopause

The foetus may be affected at all stages of development, from the moment of conception to birth. During the first 8-9 weeks after conception, the major organs of the foetus develop (heart, brain, limbs, nervous system). Agents which interfere with the formation of the foetal organs cause birth defects or congenital malformations (for example, heart defects, cleft palate, limb defects). These agents are known as teratogens. The foetus is particularly susceptible to damage during this period; this is a problem because most women do not realise they are pregnant until about 6-8 weeks.

The foetus is also susceptible later in pregnancy. The brain, for example, continues to develop throughout the whole of the pregnancy and even after birth. So does the body's system for defending itself against infection (the immune system) and for getting rid of toxic substances (the liver and kidney).

The foetus is also particularly susceptible to agents causing mutation (known as mutagens). Exposure to mutagens may cause cancer in infancy or childhood and may also impair reproductive function later in life.

Possible effects on the foetus are:

• foetal death and miscarriage
• impaired growth
• birth defects
• developmental abnormalities (e.g. learning and behavioural difficulties after birth)
• childhood cancer

What are the effects of reproductive hazards? For men?

Men can clearly also suffer the effects of exposure to reproductive hazards. The three possible consequences for men from exposure to reproductive hazards are:

• Impaired sexual activity (For example, loss of interest in sex, impotence).
• Infertility (i.e. inability to father children despite normal sexual activity).
• Fathering an abnormal pregnancy and possibly a child born with abnormalities.

The consequences of uncertainty about reproductive effects

Hundreds of new chemicals are introduced onto the market each year, but only a limited number will be investigated as to whether they have adverse effects on reproductive health. For workers, this has potential consequences. It may mean risking their health and their future children.

Most studies of human reproductive effects face a fundamental problem: in many workplaces "exposure" is a general term for contact with all the chemical, physical and physiological stress factors in the environment. Reproductive effects are a question of the combined effects of all these conditions and factors.

It is difficult to identify and attribute a specific reproduction problem to a single factor. There is no doubt that the foetus is particularly vulnerable to damage. Both sperm and ova (eggs) are also susceptible to damage and this may be transmitted to the foetus.

Until chemical agents are adequately tested prior to their introduction to the workplace, all chemicals should be assumed to be potentially dangerous and exposure should be controlled as far as possible at work.

It is essential that policies with special provision for parents during their conception period are used as an interim measure to prevent injury to the foetus. However, this should not be taken to discriminate against workers who choose to have children. They should be provided with alternative work for that time period, without loss of pay or seniority.

However, these policies do not protect workers in the same way as testing agents before they are introduced to workplaces. As such, they should be seen as only partial solutions to reproduction hazard problems.

References: This section is reproduced from a Fact Sheet authored by the NSW Workers Health Centre.

1. Reproductive Hazards. State of the Art Review. Occupational Medicine. Vol. 9 No.3 July-Sept 1994
   
2. Westerholm, P. Pregnancy and the Working Environment. Joint Industrial Safety Council, Sweden, 1994
   
3. Winder, C. "Protective legislation and discrimination in employment in the Australian lead processing industry". Journal of Occupational Health and Safety Australia New Zealand, 1988, 5(2): 121-128.

Skin Diseases

Occupational skin diseases are a widespread problem. Despite numerous protective mechanisms, the skin remains vulnerable to new irritants found in the workplace.

The skin is a good protective cover but it can fail if the load put on it becomes too much. As a result, many workers in different occupations suffer from occupational skin diseases.

What is dermatitis?
Skin diseases caused by substances and processes used in the workplace are commonly known as dermatitis and commonly involve inflammation of the skin.

Most of these skin diseases are due to contact with a harmful agent, which is why they are called contact dermatitis.

Irritant Contact Dermatitis
About 90% of all dermatitis inflammations are caused by contact with one or more of the many irritant agents, in the workplace or elsewhere. Irritant contact dermatitis can occur in anyone, and may occur suddenly after many years of exposure.

The skin becomes red at the site of contact (usually the hands) and blisters, swelling and itching may develop. Over time, the skin becomes thick, rough and cracked. A good example is that of dermatitis in motor mechanics caused by washing car parts with kerosene.

Allergic Contact Dermatitis
Some substances penetrate the dermis and sensitise the skin, so that even very low concentrations of the substance will trigger an allergic reaction in the future.

Sensitisation may occur within days of exposure, but usually takes months to years. That is why workers may suddenly develop an allergy to a substance that they have been working with for years without any problems. Once sensitisation occurs, however, it is life-long and any exposure to the sensitising chemical (or allergen) must be avoided.

Allergic responses vary from person to person, and the rash produced may look just like an irritant contact dermatitis.

Common industrial irritants	Common industrial allergens
Detergents, solvents, petroleum oils and grease Machining (cutting) fluids and various lubricants Food substances, plants and fibreglass	Metallic salts and compounds of nickel, chromate, cobalt and gold Uncured epoxy, acrylic and certain resins (hardeners and curing agents) Organic dyes, biocides and germicides

If a worker has had severe dermatitis (allergic or irritant) in the past, they need to be made aware of the risks involved in employment in which they will be exposed to high levels of irritant substances, for example hairdressing, catering, nursing or motor repairs

In addition to these forms of dermatitis, there are other skin disorders in which workplace substances or processes may be involved. These include acne, callouses and scleroderma (a relatively rare disease affecting blood vessels and connective tissue).

The Commonwealth Government's National Industrial Chemical Notification and Assessment (NICNAS) agency found that more than 400 cleaning products used in Australia contain a chemical substance called 2-butoxy-ethanol. This chemical causes irritation of the skin but many of the products did not have adequate warning about the precautions that should be taken for its use. If you are working with chemicals insist that your employer show you the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the products you use. Your employer should take suitable measures to control any health effects and follow safe work procedures when using such products.

What jobs are most at risk?
Occupational skin diseases are a widespread problem. Some occupations where workers can contract severe skin problems are:

Occupation	Substance
Construction workers, painters	Cement, epoxy resins, paint
Paint and plastic producers	Isocyanates
Kitchen, hotel and health care workers	Surfactants, soap, detergents
Metal machining workers	Mineral oils
Degreasing workers, cleaners, painters	Solvents
Drug manufacturers, preparation assistants	Pharmaceuticals
Hairdressers	Hair treating chemicals
Laboratory workers & research assistants	Wide range of chemicals

How can skin diseases be prevented?
The following control measures should be taken - the ones at the top of the list are most effective, and should be tried first. As you go down the list, the effectiveness of the control measure decreases.

1. A safer alternative to the product giving the problems should be sought. For example, paints containing epoxies can be replaced by non-epoxy paints, thereby decreasing the risk of sensitisation.

2. The work process should be totally or partially enclosed. For example, total or partial enclosures around machines, parts of machines, or conveyer belts can prevent oil mist and oil splashes contaminating workers' hands and clothing. If it is necessary to see the part being machined, these enclosures can be transparent. Mineral oils are one of the commonest causes of dermatitis.

3. Some work processes can be automated. For example, using a machine to wash paint trays instead of workers scrubbing the trays with solvents. This will eliminate the problems caused by breathing in solvent vapours, as well as skin problems caused by contact with solvents.

4. Work practices could be changed, to eliminate or reduce the chances of skin contact with chemicals. For example, automatic dispensing of organic solvents from drums to containers will reduce the risk of skin irritation from solvent vapours and splashes.

5. Good housekeeping is important. Work areas should be kept as clean as possible. Ensure that surfaces and the outside of bottles and their containers are not splattered with substances.

6. Insist that paper or disposable towels are provided for drying the skin. Toxic materials should not be wiped off with a reusable towel.

7. Isolate work involving chemicals likely to cause skin diseases, so that other workers are not exposed.

8. Protective clothing should be supplied, and laundered, by the employer. Protective clothing should never be taken home.

9. Get advice from manufacturers or suppliers of protective clothing (such as gloves, overalls) on whether the material used has been tested for resistance to the particular chemicals you use.

10. Some gloves used as protection against substances at work may themselves cause skin problems to some users. If a tight fit is not needed, PVC gloves can be used rather than latex gloves.

11. Hand care is important. During long periods of work, remove gloves and give hands an "airing" regularly - at least every hour.

12. Cleansing should be done with soap or other solvent-free hand cleansers, not organic solvents.

13. Hand creams should be provided to replace the oils in the skin removed by frequent washing.

Any substance that may irritate and affect your skin should be identified early and this is helpful in preventing an epidemic of dermatitis in your workplace.

• Read labels on containers, and ask your union delegate, safety committee representative or supervisor to find out more about the skin hazards associated with those chemicals. Follow any precautions that are recommended.

• A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be available for each substance used at work. If not, ask for one from your supervisor or the supplier of the product. If you have difficulties in getting one, contact the PSA, WorkCover or the Workers Health Centre.

• If you notice any changes in your skin, see a doctor immediately. Early diagnosis and advice is essential in preventing occupational dermatitis.

Useful References
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Occupational Diseases of the Skin , Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, November 1990

Source:
This material is based on a Fact Sheet produced by the NSW Workers Health Centre

Working from Home

Working from home is a type of flexible workplace arrangement which may be used by employees as a short-term or longer-term option. It can allow employees to continue their employment during some temporary, unforseen circumstance which prevents their attending the workplace. It can also allow an employee to work at home when the manager and the employee are in agreement that a certain piece of work can be completed more efficiently in this manner and where there are no adverse effects on the provision of customer service. It may be possible, by agreement with employers, for employees to work from home on an ongoing basis, 1-2 days per week. Working from home is most often used by employees in a situation such as an employee having a temporary disability, or whose disability fluctuates, which prevents their attendance at the workplace.

The legislation setting out responsibilities and rights regarding occupational health and safety, rehabilitation and workers compensation is designed to protect people working from homes as well as people working in more traditional workplaces such as a factory or office.

Agencies are responsible for developing working from home agreements and ensuring that individual agreements are signed prior to employees working from home, in all but on a very occasional basis. A draft working from home agreement is available from the union or as an appendix to the Premier's Department Flexible Work Practices Policy and Guidelines document

What if a person working from home is injured at work?

Workers compensation.
Workers compensation arrangements apply to all injuries arising out of or in the course of employment, whether the injury occurred while the person was working from home or at a more traditional workplace.

Whether a home based worker injured at home was actually at work at the time of the injury would be determined using the usual sources of compensation evidence, such as reporting procedures and medical evidence.

Journey claim provisions do not apply where there is no journey between home and the place of work. However, if a person working at home travels for work purposes and is injured, such a claim would be covered by the Workers Compensation Act, subject to satisfying legislative requirements.

Accident notification and first-aid requirements.
NSW Accident Notification Regulations state that if a worker has a serious accident while at work, or if a serious incident occurs at a workplace, the employer is required to report it to WorkCover. The employer is required to do this whether the person was working from home or at another worksite at the time. NSW First-Aid Regulations require that all workplaces have a first-aid kit. The minimum requirement is a basic (type C) first aid kit.

Rehabilitation.
WorkCover requirements and guidelines regarding workplace based rehabilitation apply whether the worker was injured while working from home or while working at a more traditional work site, such as an office. Regular visits may need to be made to the home by the rehabilitation coordinator or provider.

If suitable duties for an injured home based worker cannot be provided at home then the employer should seek to provide suitable duties for that worker at another workplace.

Employer guidelines
WorkCover provides guidelines for employers providing working from home arrangements. These guidelines include that the employer should consult closely with workers when planning the introduction of work from home arrangements and provide a checklist outlining some of the issues that need to be considered. These include putting in writing agreed procedures regarding working arrangements particularly regarding hours of work and access (eg checking that the workplace is safe and that safe systems of work are in place, or to review systems and procedures following an accident). More information is available from WorkCover.

Ergonomics and manual handling injuries

What does Ergonomics mean?

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.

In simple terms this includes things like working postures, materials handling, repetitive movements, work-related musculoskeletal disorders, and workplace layout. Often simple modifications to work methods, equipment or layout can provide major benefits to both management and employees in the prevention of occupational ill-health and injury and by raising productivity and increasing worker comfort and morale.

An example of the kind of ways in which ergonomics can be used to assist in the workplace follows.

Case Study:
Issue: Frequent user of a personal computer suffers from lower back, neck and right shoulder pain.

Step One: - Task Analysis
After consultation it was established that:

1. "Frequent" meant up to 8 hours sitting at the computer per day.
2. Software package required use of the mouse nearly as often as the keyboard. Mouse was located on right hand side (RHS) of keyboard.
3. Telephone was used regularly. Tendency to cradle handset into the neck when checking information with the computer.
4. User had a height adjustable chair and a fixed height desk. Chair had been adjusted to provide a comfortable keying posture.
5. As sser was relatively short, tended to rest feet on the 5 star base of the chair.

Step Two:- Advice

1. Ensure frequent changes of posture occur e.g. stand up, walk around. Avoid sitting for prolonged periods. Frequent short breaks are better than longer breaks taken less often.
2. Train to use the mouse with both hands on the LHS and RHS of the keyboard. In preference, use the "hot keys" on the keyboard as an alternative to frequent use of the mouse.
3. Obtain a telephone headset from the telephone supplier for use on prolonged calls or when interaction is required with the computer.
4. Obtain a foot-rest or equivalent under the desk to stabilise the feet. They should be supported in front of the knee line to enable the back muscles to relax into the chair backrest.
5. Use the backrest angle lever on the chair frequently during the day to suit the activity. For example, when talking on the phone, angle the backrest into a reclined position. Frequent changes of posture are needed to engage a range of muscle groups.
6. Practice some "passive exercises" i.e. gentle stretches of those muscles that feel tired.
7. Relax! Muscle pain can result from feeling stressed and tense. Identify aspects of the job that may cause muscle tension and discuss strategies to address these issues.

How should our workstations in our office be set up?

The recommended dimensions for seated workstations are as follows:

Height of work surface	(height to top of the work surface)
If fixed	680 to 720mm above floor level
If adjusted	580 to 730mm above floor level

Area of work surface	Dimensions
Width	1500mm minimum
Depth	900mm minimum
Bench thickness	25mm maximum

Volume of leg space	Dimensions
Width	800mm minimum
Depth	550mm minimum
Height	580mm maximum

Viewing distance to work	Dimensions
Minimum	350mm
Maximum	750mm

Seat pan height	Dimensions
Surface of seat to floor	380 to 510mm
Seat depth	330 to 430mm
Footrest area	300 x 375mm

Manual handling

What is manual handling?
Manual handling is defined as any activity requiring the use of force to lift, lower, push, pull, carry, move, hold or otherwise restrain an object, person or animal. The object may be inanimate (non-living, such as a carton) or animate (living, such as a patient or client). Examples would be moving cartons onto a pallet, packing shelves, loading and unloading vehicles, moving a disabled client etc.

Why should we be concerned about manual handling?
Manual handling accounts for one-third of all workplace injuries in Australia, but two thirds of costs from injuries. The majority of these injuries are back injuries, but injuries to hands, arms and feet are also significant. Body stressing covers 'muscular stress while lifting, carrying or putting down objects, muscular stress while handling objects other than lifting, carrying or putting down, muscular stress with not objects being handled, and repetitive movement, low muscle loading'.

What is the cost to an employer of manual handling injuries?
The costs to an employer of injuries caused by manual handling are significant. A review of occupational injury and disease statistics for 1994-1995 calculated that the estimated direct costs of disorders related to manual handling averaged around $6,500 per case and the average duration of injuries and diseases related to manual handling was around 10.5 working weeks.

The indirect costs of a manual handling injury have been estimated at around five to 10 times the direct costs. Indirect costs include such things:

• down-time and loss of productivity
• replacement labour and training costs
• penalties/prosecution costs
• rehabilitation/retraining costs for the injured employee
• damage to plant/replacement costs
• inspection/investigation and report writing costs
• damage to customer relations/delivery contracts/corporate image.

How do I assess a manual handling risk?
The Worksafe National Code of Practice for Manual Handling provides a 13-point checklist to assess manual handling tasks which have the risk of causing injury.

The 13-point checklist for assessing any manual handling task is as follows. Assess:

1. The actions and movements required to do the task;
2. The layout of the workplace, or the workstation;
3. The posture and position of the person doing the activity;
4. The duration of manual handling and how often it is done;
5. The location of the load and the distance required to move;
6. The weights and forces involved.
7. The characteristics of the load (eg. sharp edges);
8. How the work is organised.
9. The work environment (eg. hot, cold);
10. The skills and experience of the person doing the manual handling;
11. The age of the person;
12. Is the clothing of the person suitable to the task?;
13. Are there any special needs? (eg. has the person a pre-existing injury? or are they sick?).

What is the heaviest load a person should lift?
In NSW, there is no longer a prescribed weight limit for women or men over which it is illegal for persons to lift. Instead, the risk of lifting the load should be assessed. This risk assessment must consider a number of factors, such as:

• The number of times the load is lifted;
• The person's posture when lifting;
• The distance the load is to be moved; and
• The features of the load.

The weight of the load will increase the risk, but a light load may still pose a risk when combined with the above factors. For example, a light load which is carried away from the body poses a risk, as does a light but bulky load which is carried for some distance.

The National Code of Practice for Manual Handling gives the following general indicators for lifting, lowering or carrying loads which will help in assessing the risk:

• loads heavier than 4.5kg should not be lifted, while seated;
• loads should be kept between the range of 16-20kg, when lifting from a standing position;
• in the 16-55kg weight range, the risk of injury increases significantly, so mechanical or other methods of assistance should be employed;
• weights over 55kg should never be lifted without mechanical or other assistance (eg team lifting);
• young workers (under the age of 18) are more at risk of injury and should not lift, lower or carry more than 16 kg without mechanical or other assistance and/or particular training for the task); and
• loads which must be pushed, pulled or slid because they are difficult to move, are more likely to cause injury and should be re-designed or moved mechanically or with assistance.

Example:- manual handling of 40kg bags
For bags of raw materials and cement, etc, it is recommended that 20kg bags be used instead of 40kg bags, wherever cement or other products in bags are used. This will help to reduce the risk of back injury and workers compensation costs. Bags of less than 20 kg (eg 10kg) will reduce the risk of injury further, and should be the preferred option for workplaces.

Other controls for the use of bags include delivering the bags as close to the site of use as possible, using mechanical lifting devices to load and unload trucks, using trolleys, wheelbarrows and other devices, training staff in lifting techniques, organising work to minimise lifting activities, storing bags as close to waist height as possible and avoiding awkward postures when lifting by keeping the work area clear so a person in not posturally constrained.

What documentation can I follow?
NOHSC has released a National Standard for Manual Handling (NOHSC: 1001 [1990]):
NOHSC recommends that for practical guidance on tasks involving transfer of loads and non-repetitive actions, the National Code of Practice for Manual Handling (NOHSC: 2005 [1990]) should be consulted:
For practical guidance about tasks involving repetitive or forceful movement, and maintenance of constrained or awkward postures, NOHSC recommends consulting the National Code of Practice for the Prevention of Over-Use Injuries (NOHSC: 2013 (1994)].